primary production of 9 other critical minerals. In contrast, the United States is a leading producer of beryllium and helium, and there is some U.S. In 2017, the United States had no primary production of 22 minerals and was limited to byproduct production of 5 minerals on the critical minerals list. 113-66) has led to the acquisition of REEs and other materials for the National Defense Stockpile. Congressional action (e.g., National Defense Authorization Act for FY2014, P.L. Also, as time passed, concerns increased about access to and the reliability of entire supply chains for rare earths and other minerals. The concern among many in Congress has evolved from REEs and REE supply chains to include other minor minerals and metals that are used in small quantities for a variety of economically significant applications (e.g., laptops, cell phones, electric vehicles, and renewable energy technologies) and national defense applications. The Department of the Interior published a final list of 35 critical minerals in May 2018. In December 2017, Presidential Executive Order 13817, “A Federal Strategy to Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals,” tasked the Department of the Interior to coordinate with other executive branch agencies to publish a list of critical minerals. Chinese export quotas on a subset of critical minerals referred to as rare earth elements (REEs) and China’s 2010 curtailment of REE shipments to Japan heightened U.S. reliance on critical mineral imports and potential disruption of supply chains that use critical minerals for various end uses, including defense and electronics applications. lawmakers have expressed concerns about U.S.
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